A Comparison of John Donnes A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, and An

A Contrast of John Donnes A Valediction Forbidding Mourning, and Andrew Marvells To His modest Mistress The stereotype of poetry is that meters are written to exemplify a relationship between ii people who are so infatuated with individually other it is said that they are in approve and this can give meaning to what is commonly referred to as a love poem. Poets John Donne and Andrew Marvell write such(prenominal) poetry however, their poems A Valediction Forbidding Mourning, and To His Coy Mistress, consider two disparate concepts. Although they are addressing love, they are dealing with different aspects of it.The two poems can be contrasted in form, poetic devices such as symbols, t unrivalled, rhyme, and the metric pattern. Symbols and tone can often encourage the reader to look for underlying genial representations that will connect them to the text to put different elements deal the mood of the writer or hidden motives into perspective. The form and rhyme scheme can be applied to the person the poem is addressing, and when analyzed further, it can determine unconscious feelings and meanings that may be expressed by the writer. When using a certain rhythmical pattern, the writer can point out exactly how he feels about his subject.Donnes poem is in stanzaic form and the rhyming scheme is ABAB, CDCD, etc. In lines one through four, As virtuous men pass mildly away, / The breath goes now, and some say, no, the rhyming words away, go, say, and no because of the repetition of sounds can already make the reader feel bored. The words themselves can similarly reflect a negative feeling of being unwanted. These bland, nonionic sentences and the rhyme patterns show the speakers unattached attitude, and take away from the excitement of the subject of love.Marvells poem uses continuous rhyming couplets to illustrate loves unconventional and irrational aspects, as love usually is. They take two separate lines and make a matching pair out of them. Often he uses words that can symbolize togetherness like all and ball as he writesLet us roll all our strength and allOur sweetness up into one ballAnd plunk our pleasures with rough strife,Thorough the iron gates of life. (41-44)This rhyme scheme can make a relation to two people, a couple, joining together.Donne uses symbols ... ...her depressing, such as one would use when separating. The poem also is not addressing its subject, the woman, directly. The concept of indirectness points to the authors lack of emotion. He is remaining emotionless and indifferent to avoid any confrontation from her. He wants their separation to be as quick and as painless as possible. Since these two poems deal with completely different aspects of love, they must have been written differently. Their different forms can be analyzed to get the individual interpretation of meaning to be gathered from each. They both come across differently to the reader. One poem is about sexual love and the other poem is abou t the end of love. This just shows that not all love poems are about falling in love. When a person hears the phrase love poem, he naturally thinks that it will be about a love smitten male or female. These two poems just prove that there are many aspects of love that are not necessarily about falling in love. Love poems can also be about separating from our loved one or even about giving in to lust and temptation. From this the reader learns that there are more definitions to a love poem than originally thought.

Lears Relinquishment of Power in Shakespeares King Lear Essay

Lears Relinquishment of Power in Shakespeares King Lear King Lear is an participant who can only play the top executive. Thus, after he has abdicated his throne, passing the assurance to his posterity, he still demands respect and power, which he is unable to claim from any of his former subjects, even his daughters. And as a king with no kingdom, he is an actor with no role to play, the most loathsome of entirely conditions. Lear himself realizes this, and in scene 4, he cries Why, this is not Lear (4.204). And later in the same speech, he says Who is it that can promise me who I am? (4.209). Lear is stuck in his role as king, unable to act in any other manner and powerless to provide for himself, causing the last-ditch downfall of he and his family from their status of authority.As the play opens in the first scene, King Lear uses his authority to divide the kingdom. However, this is a power that not even the king possesses no one may divide the kingdom. Per the divin e right of the king, Lear is in control and must remain so he cannot pass the powers of the throne to anyone, sustain his heir, and then only following his death. Yet, Lear contradicts his divine right and divides the kingdom. In this action, authority is not destroyed but split between those with the greatest claims to land and riches (Spotswood 280). The authority transfers to Goneril and Regan, as Lear no longer has a claim having resigned his reign. But even though he has no claim, Lear still wants to play his kingly role. So then, the major problem of King Lear is that after he has relinquished control of the kingdom, he still desires to rule in principle, though not in feat Only we still retain The name and all th... ...rature 40 (2000) 241-60. Righter, Anne. Shakespeare and the Idea of the Play. Westport, CT Greenwood Press, 1962. Spotswood, Jerald W. Maintaining Hierarchy in The Tragedie of King Lear. Studies in English Literature 38 (1998) 265-80. Squire, Sir John. Shakespeare as a Dramatist. London Cassell and Company, 1935. Stevenson, William B. A Muse of Fire of a Winter of Discontent? Journal of Management Education 20 (1996) 39-48. Weimann, Robert. Mingling viciousness and Worthiness in King John. Shakespeare Studies 27 (1999) 109-33. Zamir, Tzachi. A Case of Unfair Proportions Philosophy in Literature. New Literary History 29 (1998) 501-20. Noteall Shakespeare text is quoted from The Norton Shakespeare. In the case of Lear, all quotations are from The History of King Lear which contains scene numbers, but no act numbers.

Essay --

John HodgesMs. R integrityyWorld Literature4 December 2013Brave sunrise(prenominal) World EssayTruth and happiness share a relationship of not knowing the justness, which only makes people happier. The people of the new world broken their freedoms but in return receive many pleasures. This thus adds to the apprehension of knowing the righteousness. They dont want to know the truth because they are adept not to and it seems like they dont want to know the truth, either. To avoid ever knowing the truth they use soma. By taking somas, they avoid truth whenever they are frightened by it. It in turn conceals their sorrows and instead fills them with fake hallucinations. In the story there are two types of truths. One type of truth is related to human relationships and emotions. Emotions and relationships give people great happiness, but they also can cause a great deal of pain. Due to these pains, no one forms relationships with the opposite sex. Along with this they consid er it abnormal to feel attachment to someone. There are no couples or families and the idea of chastity is strongly banned.The oth...

Essay on Animal Imagery in A Dolls House -- Dolls House essays

Animal Imagery in A Dolls provide Animal imagery in Henrick Ibsens play, A Dolls House is a critical part of the character reference development of Nora, the protagonist. Ibsen uses creative, but effective, animal imagery to develop Noras character throughout the play. He has Torvald call his wife his little titlark(Isben) or sulky squirrel(Isben) or other animal names throughout the play. He uses a lot of bird imagery-calling her many different bird names. The name Torvald uses instantly relates to how he feels about her at the time. The animals Ibsen chooses to use ar related to how Nora is acting, or how she needs to be portrayed. For instance Not even a dozen lines into good turn I, Torvald asks (referring to Nora), Is that my little lark twittering out there(Isben) and Is that my squirrel rummaging around?(Isben) A lark is a songbird a happy, carefree bird. It is can also be utilise as a verb that means to engage in spirited fun or merry pranks. A squirrel is quite the opposite it is a small, furry rodent. If you are to squirrel away something, you were hiding or storing it, kind of like what Nora was doing with her bag of macaroons. Torvald calls her these names to fit the situation. Nora was definitely a care free woman, just like a lark, and Torvald refers to her as such my little lark(Isben). When he says that, Nora is moving around the room and humming with a carefree spirit that would characterize a lark. Whenever she has this spirit, Torvald refers to her as his little lark.(Isben) On the other hand, Nora must be some sort of scrounge, because Torvald also refers to her as his little squirrel.(Isben) He asks if that is my squirrel rummaging around(Isben). It seems that maybe Ibsen was usi... ...al in the character development for both characters, showing really how both sides perceive the other. Works Cited and Consulted Baruch, Elaine Hoffman. Ibsens Doll House A Myth for Our Time. The Yale Review 69 (1980) 374-387. Durbach, Errol. A Dolls House Ibsens Myth of Transformation. Boston Twayne, 1991. Ibsen, Henrick. A Doll House. The Bedford Introduction to Literature Reading, Thinking, Writing. 5th ed. Ed. Michael Meyer. Boston Bedford/St. Martins, 1999. 1564-1612. Northram, John. Ibsens Search for the Hero. Ibsen A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Rolf Fjelde. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Hall, 1965. 107-113. Salom, Lou. Ibsens Heroines. Ed. and trans. Siegfried Mandel. Redding Ridge barren Swan, 1985. Templeton, Joan. The Doll House Backlash Criticism, Feminism, and Ibsen. PMLA 104.1(1989) 28-40.

Investigate notions of sisters and sisterhood within Top Girls :: English Literature

Investigate notions of sisters and sisterhood within Top GirlsIn Act 1 the women at the dinner party, speak of their suffering inthe past, alone they all relate to Marlene and to each other as asisterhood of the present, even though the women representcontemporary figures supposedly alive in the too soon 1980s in England.Lady Nijo and Pope Joan are similar in that they both had babies indifficult situations, and both stood up for their rights as women.The portrayal of these women contrasts with the traditional andclassical representation of women in plays. In the past womencharacters have been presented as dependent on men and limited by theconversations of a male dominates world. A typical mannequin of this isseen in Hamlet by William Shakespeare, with both Gertrude and Opheliasaying I will obey my lord however in Top Girls the characters cerebrateindependently and believe in themselves and show support for theirsisters. The characters are individualised which is dramaticallyinte resting as they open to a new experience on the stage. The modernwomen is sh induce in Top Girls to be living in the time of shiftingpriorities and expectations, challenging the female roles. Anexample of this is Louise in act 2 saying, She has a different style,shes a new kindMany themes that run throughout Top Girls relate to the time when theplay was written. An example of this and also an example of sisters inthe play is the argument between comfortce and Marlene. Marlene is anindividualistic and through her own determination and effort hasmanaged to lift herself out of working class environment to nubclass. Class structure, as seen by Marlene, is the cause of oppressionand the row between the sisters is exaggerated and simplified withMarlene saying I hat the working class and Joy replying I spitwhen I see a Rolls Royce.Marlene shows support for Thatcher saying Shes a tough lady,Maggie. Certainly gets my vote. Which can be interpreted as, her ownsuccess could have been due to the encouragement and initiative of anindividual. Act 3 reveals aspects of Marlenes life that could bequestioned. She left home at the age of 17, she push down herself of fromall family ties, she hasnt been home for 6 years and Angies arrivalin the office is a complete inconvenience to her. In many considerJoyce can be interpreted as a failure too, she is worn out, let downby her husband and has a mixed success to search after Angie. Thehistory of the sisters social and family background is grim.

Investigate notions of sisters and sisterhood within Top Girls :: English Literature

Investigate notions of sisters and sisterhood within Top GirlsIn Act 1 the women at the dinner party, speak of their pathetic inthe past, but they all relate to Marlene and to each other as asisterhood of the present, even though the women representcontemporary figures supposedly bouncy in the early 1980s in England.Lady Nijo and Pope Joan are similar in that they both had babies indifficult situations, and both stood up for their rights as women.The portrayal of these women contrasts with the traditional and course of instructionical representation of women in plays. In the past womenchar bearers have been presented as dependent on men and limited by theconversations of a male dominates world. A typical grammatical case of this isseen in Hamlet by William Shakespeare, with both Gertrude and Opheliasaying I will obey my lord however in Top Girls the characters thinkindependently and believe in themselves and show support for theirsisters. The characters are individualised which is dramaticallyinteresting as they open to a fresh experience on the stage. The modernwomen is shown in Top Girls to be living in the time of shiftingpriorities and expectations, challenging the female roles. Anexample of this is Louise in act 2 saying, She has a different style,shes a new kindMany themes that run throughout Top Girls relate to the time when theplay was written. An example of this and also an example of sisters inthe play is the argument between Joyce and Marlene. Marlene is anindividualistic and through her own determination and effort hasmanaged to lift herself out of working(a) class environment to middleclass. Class structure, as seen by Marlene, is the cause of oppressionand the row between the sisters is exaggerated and simplified withMarlene saying I hat the working class and Joy replying I spitwhen I see a Rolls Royce.Marlene shows support for Thatcher saying Shes a tough lady,Maggie. Certainly gets my vote. Which can be interpreted as, her ownsuccess could have been due to the encouragement and initiative of anindividual. Act 3 reveals aspects of Marlenes life that could bequestioned. She left home at the age of 17, she cut herself of fromall family ties, she hasnt been home for 6 years and Angies arrivalin the office is a complete inconvenience to her. In many respectsJoyce can be interpreted as a failure too, she is worn out, let downby her husband and has a combine success to look after Angie. Thehistory of the sisters social and family background is grim.

Principles of communication in adult and social care settings Essay

Ai Identify four different reasons why stack march onMaking and cave ining relationshipsPeople communicate to make new relationships. The office I first chat and listen to a newcomer tin stool make them feel welcome or overlooked. As I speak or comment, listen and watch, take an interest, smile and nod, whether to a assist user, a member of their family, a co- role player or a visit practiti unrivalledr I am building and gear uping my relationship with them. Communication will continue to be the master(prenominal) mode I nurture and develop my relationships at work.Read more Identify different reasons why we communicateessayGiving and receiving informationAt work I will be expected to give and receive different types of information. Perhaps a service user confides in me, or a member of their family asks me a question. A colleague could give me instructions a visiting practitioner major power make an observation. The information I give, receive and pass on will help me to guard place my work effectively.Expressing sine qua nons and feelingsExpressing of necessity and feelings is part of being human and these ar communicated through behaviour as well as speech. Most race request to sh ar needs and feelings with each(prenominal) some other(a) and in this mien build up a sense of trust with the person they confide in. sh be thoughts and ideasHuman process many of their thoughts by discussing them. If I put one over ideas, questions and opinions or so my work, sharing them with colleagues helps to clarify, develop and even change the path I conceptualize and act. The way in which I serve to the thought processes of service users could encourage or disapprove their sharing with me.Affirming one a nonherAffirmation is well-nigh acknowledging and encouraging each other and reassuring individuals of their worth and value. Affirmation is communicated through positive haggling, praise and gestures. close to tending settings use support grou ps, staff meetings and appraisals as ways of affirming practitioners nearly their work performance.Aii divulge two ways how communication bathroom affect relationships in an adult social care setting between individuals using the service, their carers, colleagues and other practitioners.The ability to communicate well is a key skill that enables me to work effectively with others. Communication process is much about listening and receiving messages as it is about talking and giving messages. As a care actor I need to be skilled in both aspects. My communication skills will develop and become more effective as I gain experience in my work role, learning from observing more experienced colleagues. Learning from others, pursuit for advice and using support are all part of this process. During my work with service users there will be specific situations where good communication skills are curiously necessary.Sharing informationIn a care setting it is vital that information is shar ed appropriately between workers to enable each member of squad to carry out his or her role effectively. I will also need to share information with service users and their congenators. sometimes the information might be of a sensitive nature, such as when breaking bad news or bartering with private information, and I will need to be especially sensitive. In the course of my work I will need to find out information, pass on information and listen information.Providing supportCommunication is the main way in which I continue to sustain relationships and build this up. As a health and social care worker I will need to offer support to service users and their families and this is enabled through both vocal and nonverbal communication. I will need to listen, as much as Ispeak and the use of appropriate and non intrusive touch prat add to sense of being supportive.Aiii Using the table below, identify three ways of finding out the communication and quarrel needs of an individual. F or each method, describe how effective it is at establishing the needs of the individual.Asking/Observing the Individual. Asking/Observing is probably the best way of establishing the individuals communication and language needs as this would immediately allow me to establish their usual language, if they are visually or hearing afflicted etc.Check the Care plan for the individuals communication needs. The Care plan can be a good source of information on the needs of the resident, but if documented incorrectly due to human error this method becomes ineffective.If the first two dont provide me with the needed information I could ask residents family, friends, doctor or other professionals who have a bun in the oven worked with the individual. This is another effective method, only to be used if the first two fail.Aiv Describe three factors to consider when promoting effective communicationProximity.Physical distance the better you know a person the closer I am likely to be physicall y. Closeness can encourage sharing. Positioning chairs at an angle rather than side by side makes it physically easier to talk to another person. Sitting straightway opposite is more formal and can feel confrontational. Sometimes a table between me helps a person feel protected. Yelling from one fashion to another doesnt aid communication.Orientation.Body position leaning forward can communicate that you are interested, but too close might storm body space. Turning away can show lack of interest , but standing directly opposite a person can be too direct, where being atan angle can provide a helpful space.Posture.Behaviour folded arms can look defensive and discourage communication. Friends and family without realising, often mirror the other persons posture during conversation, which is thought to increase a sense of familiarity. Standing over a person who is position might feel patronising or threatening.Av Describe three verbal and three non verbal communication methods and s tyles that a social care worker may use in an adult care setting.Communication is a complicated process do up of many different elements to do with verbal and non verbal language. These are reflected in a range of communication styles and methods. Communication is also a two-way process that must take into consideration the reactions of others and respond appropriately. To be a skilled communicator and interpreter of communication I must pay close attention to my words and actions, as well as the words and actions of others.Verbal communication. Its about the choice of words being spoken, but also the way the words are said.Vocabulary. Choosing words that are appropriate to the service users level of understanding is classic. Perhaps English is not their first language, or they have communication difficulties associated with a physical condition. At the aforementioned(prenominal) time, I need to be aware of not being too simplistic and coming across as patronising.Tone of voice. Tone of voice concerns the ablaze message being conveyed alongside the spoken words. When these dont match, people can become aware of my emotions and will pick up whether I am irritated or anxious, for example.Pitch of voice. Pitch of voice concerns how low or high my voice sounds.Speaking in a low voice can be calming and soothing, but too low and I can sound boring. In contrast, a high pitch can sound shrill and be unpleasant to listen to.Non verbal communicationNon-verbal communication is a form of communication that take place almost subconsciously, that is, without being aware of thought. It provides clues about the meaning of spoken language.Body language. Body language relates to the way my body reflects my thoughts and feelings. This can add emphasis to my words, but if I dont sincerely mean what I am saying it can also reveal a truer and contradictory message beneath my words. For example, exclaiming, how fascinating might sound as though I am interested, but body lan guage of tapping fingers, poor eye contact and stifled yawns betrays I am actually bored.Gestures. Gestures are signs made with the hands and arms to illustrate or emphasise my words or to stand in place of words. People often gesticulate during conversations without really thinking about it. I might see someone gesticulating while talking on the phone, even though the person receiving the call cannot see their gestures. Some gestures are understood across many different countries of the world, such as thumbs up, meaning good news, but not all the gesture are universal and instead of clarifying a message, could create a confusion.Eye contact. Eye contact is very important and sometimes it is difficult to know if a person is telling the truth un little I can look into their eyes. Holding someone gaze is a sign of intimacy, but to do so with a person I dont know well can feel uncomfortable, even threatening. During most conversations it is normal for my gaze to flit to and from anoth ers face. When working with service users who have communication difficulties it can help to exaggerate elements of non-verbal communication to provide more clues about my spoken message.Avi Explain why it is important to respond to an individuals reactionsduring communication.The following qualities will help to respond appropriately to the communication of others. Awareness of how my communication is being received. Look for nonverbal cues that indicates the telephone receivers interest and understanding and equally those that indicate misunderstanding or boredom.Sensitivity to tune into my recipients emotional responses to my words. Flexibility to change the way I am saying something in order to clarify my meaning and increase understanding.Communication techniques. Some communication techniques assist with the process of responding to the reactions of others.Echoing. Echoing is a technique where I repeat back what a person has said in a way that both checks my understanding of t heir words and also affirms the cardinal feeling being expressed. For example, if a distressed resident of a care home tells me she thinks someone has stolen items from her room, I might say, It must be upsetting for you to think someone has been interfering with your personal belongings.Mirroring. Mirroring is a communication technique used to improve rapport with another person. In many cases it happens naturally, where one person reflects the other persons physical positions and mannerisms, their tone of voice, word use and communication style.Asking questions. If I want a person to express their ideas and feelings I am best to ask open questions which invite broader responses. How are you feeling today Is and example, where a service user is free to respond in a way they choose. If I ask a closed question the answer is usually reduced to one word, for example Are you feeling better today? Invites a yes or a noAvii Explain how an individuals background can influence the way they communicate.Communication is all about sharing with one another and yet each person communicates slightly differently according to their different background and experience.The impact of differences. Diversity is something to be celebrated and enjoyed, but our differences can also lead to misunderstanding and different interpretations of the same communicationCultural background. Cultural differences refer to a variety of different influences, such as family background, equal group, religion, and ethnicity. These all play a part in shaping the way a person views the world and spin dot it. Cultural differences are revealed by particulars attitudes, values and practices, all of which have bearing on how a person communicates and understands the communication of others. For example, if an individual comes from a family where it is usual to make decisions through noisy and change discussions, this person might find it difficult to accept an order without question.Individual personalit y. Although individuals share personality traits in common with others, the unique make-up of these and the way they cash in ones chips together is individual to that person. One individual might be quiet and reserved, another enthusiastic and bubbly and this will affect the way each communicates and responds to communication.Levels of confidence. all communication requires a certain amount of confidence to speak up, make a statement, or share with others through spoken or written words. Sometimes a person has had their confidence undermined by a previous experience of communication, such as being misunderstood, or laughed at for mispronouncing a word, or possibly an experience from childhood, such as failing their English exams. Confidence builds up over time but can be knocked down in seconds by a thoughtless or unkind response.Competence in communication skillsLiteracy skills refer to a persons competence in reading, writing and public speaking in a particular language. The s ervice users I work with may be a different levels of competence in literacy and need to be communicated with a level they can cope with. Some adults struggle with literacy and may feel embarrassed by their difficulties. As well as literacy skills, some individuals will have better access to and be more competent using information and computer technology (ICT) than others. I should not assume that everyone I have transaction with at work has access to the internet and email, or mobile phones, or that they are competent in using such technology.Aviii Identify three examples of barriers to communication and explain how you could overcome each barrier.Barrier sender speaks different language. Overcome to have a translator or a dictionary Barrier poor or incomplete information selection. Overcome to give as many details possible Barrier hearing difficulties, visual difficulties. Overcome to seek for medical examination advice and find a way of communication Barrier sender cannot expre ss message clearly, I speech or writing. Overcome to use body language and sign language Barrier distraction. Overcome to change the surroundings, to focusAix Describe two strategies that you could use to clarify misunderstandingCommunication is a complex process and Health and social care is a complex area, so it is inevitable that misunderstandings will arise from time to time. When a. Is understanding happens it is important to have a range if methods to clarify the situation and improve communication.Adapt my message Sometimes the message needs to be said or written in a different way. Perhaps the tone need to change, or the message style. The language I have used might need to be simplified. Maybe a phone conversation has been unsatisfactory in some way, but a face to face meeting would help establish better communication.Change the environment It might be necessary to make changes to the environment to enable better communication. For example, if I am conducting a meeting in an office where people are constantly coming in and out, or the phone keeps ringing, I will need to find a quieter place to speak.Ask for feedback In most situations it is pleasing to stop the flow of conversation with the person I am speaking with to check that I have understood correctly what is being spoken about. Equally, I can check that the person I am communicating with can hear me or understand me.Ax A social care worker wants to enable more effective communication with individuals using the service. Explain how they could access extra support or service that they may be helpful.There is a range of support useable to enable effective communication with the service users I work with and members of their family. Importantly, individuals need to be informed about these services and be able to access them. For example support available via local anaesthetic authorities and services, such as NHS and adult social services departments. Help is also available from national charit ies, such as ICAN, for speech and language needs and the national Autistic society for those with autism. The Citizens Advice Bureau (CAB) is another source for advice and assistance on advocacy, description and interpretation. in addition there may be projects operating in local areas and these are likely to be advertised at a local library or community centre, or in a health centre. Communication support tends to include these categories speech and language services translation and version services language service professionals (LSP) advocacy services.Task B case studyYou are a social worker and a service user, Hannah, tells you she is distressedtaking her medication. She thinks she does not need it and so she is throwing it away. You know from her care plan that Hannah does not need to take the medication regularly and gets confused. Hannah begs you to keep this confidential and not to tell anyone especially her daughter, who she sees regularly, as her daughter will be very angry.Bi How would you explain the term confidentiality to HannahI would say to Hannah that confidentiality refers to the need to handle personal information in ways that are appropriate, safe and professional and meet legal requirements. And it is my duty of care to look after her and to inform the appropriate people about possible situations when she might be at risk. In this case, not taking medication could be a risk for her mental health and I need to report to my managers in first instance and to seek for medical advice or other professional advice if need it and to explain all this to Hannah. And also that might need to involve family if necessary or if it specified in Care plan.Bii Describe the possible tensions that may arise between telling others or Hannahs decisions and keeping this information totally confidential.The relationship I built with service users and their families are central to my care role. If I share their personal information with others who have no need or right to know I risk breaking their trust in me. Hannah also needs to know thee are cook systems and procedures operating in the care stating to protect confidential information. Some information must be kept confidential for safety reasons. For example, some service users as categorised as vulnerable adults, such as a person with special needs whose wearer outs might need to be protected from a relative who abused them in some way in the past.Biii Describe ways to maintain confidentiality in day to day communicationA great deal of information will pass around at my work placement through conversations, hand-over reports, earn, written reports and emails. Someof it will be confidential and I need to know how to manage this appropriately in a care setting. If I am unsure whether information is confidential, ask a senior member of staff. communicate information Oral information can be transferred via face to face conversations, or over the phone. These might take place during me etings, or in less formal settings. If I need to discuss a confidential matter with a service user, family member, or with a colleague or visiting practitioner, I have to make sure I find somewhere private where I will not be interrupted or overheard. In care settings it is not generally the policy to discuss confidential matters over the telephone, unless I can verify the person is who they claim to be. Never leave confidential messages on an answering machine. Do not at any time be tempted to gossip about confidential work matters.Paper information Personal records including notes, reports and letters concerning individual service and their families should be kept together in a file which is locked in a safe place. A lockable filing cabinet is achromatic safe if keys are not left lying around. Equally, rooms with keypads are not secure if the door has been propped open. To be aware of leaving documents around such as diaries, telephone messages and faxes if these contains confide ntial information. Many organisations have a policy that personal records must not be removed from their workplace, because could be lost, seen by others, damaged, or the information could be taken and used wrongly.Electronic information These days great deal of information is stored and transferred electronically, via computer. Computer files should be protected using passwords which are only shared with authorised individuals. Care must be taken to close private documents after use, to prevent individuals who are passing from catching quite a little of the screen. To be vigilant when transporting information between computers via memory pens or discs. To make sure the memory pen doesnt get lost and that the information doesnt remain on the hard drive of the computer it was played on.Biv Explain when and how a social care worker should get advice aboutconfidentialityAnytime need it.We can eternally ask our superiors for advice, read policies and procedures and talk with appropria te bodies. When we are not sure about a situation or a person we should always double check first with our manager and to go to their files or documents and find out more information. We can always ask HR department as well.

Influence of Athletes to People

Picture this scene The best athletes in your community are gathered for the yearbook high school varsity letter awards banquet. Halfback Henry and Jumpshot Jenny already have received accolades from the Master of Ceremonies for their accomplishments, but the attention is now focused on Susan Strike, Central Highs varsity bowling superstar. bowl is Central Highs newest varsity letter sport, he proclaims, and were extremely proud to announce Susan Strike has not totally clear All-Conference honors for leading the Little Nine with a 206 average, but she led Central High to ts first constitute forth bowling championship.A standing ovation follows. You peter because Susan is a product of your youth league program. She is the first of a new generation of varsity Bowling letter winners and shell serve as an inspiration for hundreds of early days bowlers in your This scene may sound like a dream to you, but its a reality in some playing fields of the unite States where a fistful o f dedicated proprietors have laid the groundwork to launch the nation-wide Varsity Bowling program during the 1998-99 bowling Varsity Bowling is going to be a two-pronged endeavour 1.From the Top Down Five states have been selected to participate in a targeted Varsity Bowling program during the 1998-99 with a focused effort to secure state high school athletic association approval for the sport. 2. From the Bottom Up Every local/regional proprietor group in either area of the United States is invited to test the Varsity Bowling waters on their own.A comprehensive organizational kit, including enlarge manual, videotape and support materials, is avail competent today from the green American Bowling Alliance and the Bowling Proprietors Association of America to help your proprietor group and local association volunteers get a eadstart in organizing a high school club conference to demonstrate the programs feasibility. Varsity Bowling is a program that cannot succeed without the c ommitment and dedication of the proprietors. You own the arenas, you have the expertness and its your youth bowlers who allow benefit the most.Varsity Bowling is one of the most comprehensive step-by-step organizational programs ever developed in bowling (or any sport). It is based upon 10 years of fix and research in Northern Illinois and Michigans Upper Peninsula, culminating in resounding success. Be Part of Bowlings Biggest Success Story in Decades Varsity Bowling will become our sports most significant success story in decades, with your help. Mark these figures down and watch them grow In 1996-97, only 728 of Americas more than 16,000 high schools offered any kind of bowling program.Out of 6. 1 million high school students who participated in athletics in 1996-97, only 15,600 were able to bowl for their schools. Only seven of Americas 50 states had as many as 30 high schools offering bowling as an extracurricular activity. Bowling has nearly 500,000 spring chicken people p articipating in Young American Bowling Alliance leagues and tournaments. They know and love bowling, and most of them are denied the hazard to experience the beef and excitement of bowling for a letter for their high school teams.American Sports Data states interest in bowling is at an all-time high among young people, with a 15% increase in interest among pre-teens and 17% growth in interest among high schoolers. As a proprietor, you will never experience any program as rewarding as youll discover by becoming a part of the Varsity Bowling team. Send for your comprehensive Varsity Bowling organizational kit, including detailed manual, videotape and support materials, today order your kit now Send for your comprehensive Varsity Bowling organizational kit, including detailed manual, videotape and support materials, todayTo order your Varsity Bowling kit, please send an email to Jennifer Williamson or call her at the Young American Bowling Alliance (414 423-3398. The Scholarship Mana gement and Accounting Reports for Tenpins (SMART) program will help locate and secure existing bowling lores for YABAs membership. SMART will alike help any organization start and manage a new bowling lore program while relieving new and existing bowling knowledge providers from the burden of administering their scholarship funds.YABA has developed two service levels to accomplish this mission Level one is SMARTs information and assistance level. This SMART level can be contacted in one of three ways telephone, mail or email. SMART Level One will provide the following services Information on how to start a bowling scholarship league, tournament or written Information on how to manage the scholarship dollars collected. Advise, assist and support organizations regarding any riddle encountered in conducting or administering their scholarship programs.A booklet containing location of scholarship leagues, tournaments, and written cholarships offered worldwide universities and colle ges that offer bowling scholarships and those offering bowling as a scholastic or club sport and national scholarship applications. In Level Two, the organization forwards their scholarship dollars to SMART, and SMART will manage their scholarship dollar on a daily basis. SMART charges no fee to use the program. SMART operates off the interest made on the scholarship funds.At the end of each bowling season (July 31st) SMART will deduct the operating expenses from the total interest earned. The remaining interest will be ascribe to each organization. The amount each organization receives will be determined on a percentage basis by the total amount of scholarship funds in their account. The organization then may use the interest as new scholarships at their discretion.For more SMART information, write to SMART 5301 S. 76th St. , Greendale, WI 53129, call 414/423-3343, fax 414/421-3014 or e-mail Ed Gocha at emailprotected com. 999 Youth and Collegiate Bowlers Scholarships SMARTs 1998 Youth and Collegiate Bowling Educational Guide is provided here for Junior exceedings program To help young bowlers progress from their first visit to a center o becoming a Junior exceptional property member, YABA has created a line of products (to be released in July 1999), to guide them through the different stages of development and prepare them for active roles as participants in the adult membership With this road map, youth bowlers will be guided through five different levels of bowlingIntroduction to Bowling, First Organized Program, League Participation and Introduction to Tournament Competition, Purely emulous and Elite Competition ( aggroup USA). Who are Gold members? The Gold Program is the highest level of the USA Junior Olympic Bowling Program. To become a Junior Olympic Gold member, athletes must carry a minimum one hundred sixsomety-five average for girls and 175 for boys based on at least 21 games and be YABA members in good standing. Only Gold members are el igible to participate in the Junior Olympic Programs pinnacle event, the Junior Olympic Gold internal Championships. more than than 500 athletes competed in the National Championships held in July in Orlando, Fla. Complete Coverage of the 1999 Junior Olympic Gold National Championships. Gold members (YABA members with minimum average of 165 for girls and 175 for boys) may qualify to compete for a spot on the Junior Olympic Bowling TEAM USA hrough the Junior Olympic Gold National Championships. The programs goals are to emphasize advanced training, coaching and team bowling. In addition, the program will help develop more elite bowlers to feed into collegiate or professional bowling and become future members of American Bowling Congress or Womens International Bowling Congress. How does the Junior Olympic Gold National Championships work?Athletes qualify for the National Championships by winning or finishing high enough in a Gold subject. (Entries paid by the Event sponsor. ) The five-day competition is conducted on multiple lane conditions and consists of ouble elimination match play. The top 16 boys and top 16 girls advance to round-robin finals to compete to win the six boys and six girls spots available on the Junior Olympic TEAM USA. The Junior Olympic Bowling Program was created from YABAs partnership with USA Bowling, and in conjunction with the United States Olympic Committee. The Junior Olympic program focuses on athletes skill levels rather than age and gender and offers several player development levels.Gold members have the opportunity to become members of Junior Olympic TEAM USA, chosen annually at the Junior Olympic Gold National Championships. Being a Junior Olympic TEAM USA member offers several benefits, including representing the United States in national and international competition, access to scholarships, training at the United States Olympic Training tenderness in Colorado Springs, Colo. , all-expense paid travel and competition fees, uniforms, recognition from other skilled bowlers and being part of a feeder system for future TEAM USA members. Canadian members are eligible to be Junior Olympic Gold members, compete in the National Championships and earn scholarships. They are unable to be Junior Olympic TEAM USA members.

Identifying a Problem

Identifying a Problem T. L. Wilson Grand Canyon University Professional Research pouch NRS-441V March 19, 2013 Identifying a Problem The clinical environment that I previously worked in was a correctional institution. During the time that I worked in corrections I encountered several bunko games that had HIV. It was this environment and the experience that I received this idea and it is what gives me the inspiration to build a proposal for change.Within this system is where I discovered that staff was non receiving much cake and education and the inmates were not receiving any prevention education at all. During the time that I worked in corrections and encountered individuals with HIV. One evening turn running the medication line a 17 year old stepped to the medication window to receive his medication. His medication was a barrage of HIV antivirals. I was shocked and found the situation to be very disturbing. I assumed this bothered me because I also had a child this age.The w hole scenario of this young objet dart having HIV made me feel as though somehow I had dropped the ball on him and his situation and let this young men down. I frequently wondered if this young man had been instructed on prevention and education prior to his HIV diagnoses. As health professional and a parent that situation personally left(a) me feeling responsible as well as driven to do all that I can to get people educated regarding HIV prevention and education. After that initial shock wore off I encountered several others that crossed my path ranging in age from 17-21 that were HIV positive also.I also discovered that the staff and well as the inmates were in disparate need of a primary prevention and education plan. As a fully staffed health give care social unit there was very little to no patient teaching being conducted. I feel that it is very important that a preventive and health counselling program be implemented for inmates as well as staff. The purpose of such a p rogram for staff would ensure that inmate/patients gained knowledge of their status. Implementing a preventive nd education program would give inmates insight in to their diagnosis and encourage medication compliance in addition to giving the inmate/patient the opportunity to take part in the management of their own health. This would be accomplished by being compliant with their medication and avoiding at jeopardize behavior such as sexual activity or acquiring tattoos or any other at risk behavior. As for the health care staff and security staff an in depth expanding their knowledge base with a thorough system to educate and one that promotes prevention will hang the exposure risk for staff and inmates.

Defining Human Resource Management: Function and Roles Essay

Human pick management conducts several operations, and plays a full of life role in schemes. Many employees look to compassionate resource management for assistance and representation. A federations ability to manage people efficaciously can build a more than successful organization, and also helps maintain a more vibrant workforce, which in turn aids companies in holding a competitive edge in many of todays industries. The following information defines human resource management, touches on ain experience, and examines the crops and roles human resource management plays in an organization.Human Resource ManagementHuman resource management helps organizations to obtain and develop employees. People comprise any organizations most rich asset, and sufficiently motivating and maintaining a well-trained workforce allows organizations to perform at optimal levels. Human resource management acts a subset of management, and coincides with the planning, organizing, leading, and con trolling functions thereof (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007).From a personal viewpoint, human resource management involves several activities. At previous larger employers, hiring, training, payroll, and conflict resolution were some of these duties, while others included company party planning, employee take in disbursement, and annual progress reports. Today, human resource management at a current employer has significantly less duties, as the small property maintenance company employs a much smaller workforce of fewer than 15 employees. However, at all places of personal employment the human resource departments had multiple responsibilities related with non only managing people, but also providing various support functions to the organization.Primary Functions of Human Resource ManagementAccording to DeCenzo and Robbins (2007), two primary responsibilities include, assisting the organization in it strategical direction and representing and advocating for the organizations employees ( DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007, p. 34). As previously discussed, human resource management can involve several organizational activities, but the main focus constitutes supporting both the company and company associates. The four primary human resource management activities that provide organizational support include staffing, employee development, motivation, and maintenance (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007).Staffing an organization often requires screening several candidates to seek out the best fit for a particular position. Once hired, human resource departments must provide tolerable training and orientation to help not only new employees, but also further develop and enhance existing company staff. Building a quality workforce for an organization takes time and effort from human resource management teams, largely because as stated by DeCenzo and Robbins (2007), People, not buildings, make a company successful, (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007, p. 32).Additionally, the human resource department fin ds efficient ways to motivate workers such as benefit packages, performance bonuses, and other influential compensation. This function is passing important, as it helps build and maintain morale. Motivating people can prove to be a difficult task, and as explained by DeCenzo and Robbins (2007), Human behavior is complex, and attempt to figure out what motivates various employees has long been a concern of behavioral scientists (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007, p. 40). Finally, the human resource team must maintain effective communications, employee loyalty, and assist in providing a continuously safe and healthy work environment (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007).The Strategic Planning Role of Human Resource ManagementStrategic planning for organizations begins with saddle horse achievable objectives, and the role of human resource management requires finding economically feasible strategies to meet preset organizational goals. According to DeCenzo and Robbins (2007), This means working with abs orb management in analyzing organizational designs, the culture, and performance systems, and recommending and implementing changes where necessary (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007, p. 34). Additionally, this often involves figuring out ways to reduce costs in personnel, while finding more affordable ways to offer motivational benefits to employees.Human resource management displays added value to an organization by effectively validating the companys human resource management investments (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007). Despite the size of an organization, a quality emphasis on human resource management builds potential for successful production efforts. Organizations cannot function without people, and the proper selection and development of employees often benefits from a quality human resource management team. DeCenzo and Robbins (2007) stated, Human resource management is a function of all(prenominal) managers job, not just those who work in human resources (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007, p. 34). Many people tend to think of hiring or payroll when the term HR comes up, when in fact, several important organizational duties and responsibilities come with these positions.ReferencesDeCenzo, D., & Robbins, S. (2007). Fundamentals of human resource management (9th Ed.), Hoboken, NJ John Wiley & Sons, retrieved from the University of Phoenix Electronic Library.

American History Since 1865: Ashford University Course Overview Essay

HIS 204 Week 1 DQ 1 The History of ReconstructionYour initial discussion thread is due on twenty-four hour period 3 (Thursday) and you incur until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses. pen the Discussion Forum Grading polish for guidance on how your discussion will be evaluated.HIS 204 Week 1 DQ 2 The Industrial RevolutionToo such(prenominal) corporate influence in administration the specter of socialist policies undermining capitalism and individual freedoms a middle class in apparent decline waves of immigration which threatened to alter the caseful of the Statesn society new technologies which introduced new social problems as well as finish upering new opportunities and a general sense that the common flock had lost control of their brass To a sometimes surprising degree, the issues which troubled Americans in the last quarter of the nineteenth century resembled our ow n. The past often loses much of its vigor and tumult as it becomes codified as history, and it can be difficult at times to understand how truly revolutionarytranformative, disruptive, unprecedented, and divisivean guinea pig such as the Industrial Revolution was for the people who lived through it.WEEK 2 COMPLETE WORKHIS 204 Week 2 proveHIS 204 Week 2 Paper The Progressive PresidentsProgressive PartyThe Progressive Party was created as a result of President Theodore Roosevelt. They were mostly focused on getting Americas financial system back to usual and making essential modifications. Progressive Party of 1912 had been called a political party in the United Stateand it was created by a split in the Republican Party. This was created by Theodore Roosevelt when he lost the Republican nomilanded estate to the in office President William Howard Taft and drew his delegates out of the convention (Mowry, 1946-1960). After that party is become popular as the Bull Moose Party, later th an the partys symbol and later than Roosevelts show off that he was dependable as strong as a bull moose.HIS 204 Week 2 DQ 1 The Progressive Movement1.What, in your estimation, were the list principles of the Progressive Movement? 2.What were Progressivisms most significant successes and failings? 3.Can the First World War be look ated as a particularly Progressive conflict, or did it countermine the Progressive Movementor are both of these statements true? 4.HIS 204 Week 2 DQ 2 Americas era of ImperialismAmericas Age of Imperialism was relatively short-lived, and somewhat anomalous in terms of overall US history. For a few brief years in the 1890s, the US aggressively pursued overseas colonies, holding on to those colonies even in the face of indigenous resistance and, unlike its handling of continental territories, offering the new colonies no path toward equal statehood and citizenship. The Filipino Insurrection of 1899 to 1902 provides a particularly unsettling episode in terms of how Americans generally like to remember their past. Having driven the Spanish out of the Philippines, the US ignored the Filipinos demand for independence, for which they had been fighting against the Spanish for several years, andinstead took possession of the islands, treating the Filipinos as colonial subjects. For several years, Americans and Filipinos fought over the destiny of the Philippines in a inhumane conflict which cost the lives of hundreds of thousandsperhaps even more than a millionFilipino civilians.WEEK 3 COMPLETE WORKHIS 204 Week 3 QuizHIS 204 Week 3 Final Paper Preparation (Native American history)IntroductionIt has been seen that Native American history extents thousands of thousands of years and two continents. This is a versatilenarrative of full of life history cultures that in turn generatedcomplicatedfinancialassociations and multifaceted political unions. In the course of it all, an association of First Peoples to the public has stay behind a fundamentalsubject.HIS 204 Week 3 DQ 1 Normalcy and the bare-ass DealNormalcy and the New DealWhen the First World War ended, Americans welcomed what they hoped would be a return to normalcy. The decades that followed, however, are whizzs which would rarely be described as normal, in comparison to what came before or after. During these decades, a struggle ensued within the American nation regarding how best to define the nations essential character, as groups like the revived Ku Klux Klan fought a rearguard action to define nationhood solely in terms of white skin and Protestant religion against secularists, Catholics, flappers, New Negroes, and others who challenged the traditional order.Immediately thereafter, the New Deal implemented in response to the Great Depression threatened to revolutionize the role of the federal government in lives of the American people, in ways which many Americans believed violated the basic tenets of the Constitutionand others believed were not rad ical enough. Taken together, the decades from 1920 to 1940 may founder transformed the American nation more than any other comparable time period.HIS 204 Week 3 DQ 2 The End of IsolationYour initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses. Reference the Discussion Forum Grading Rubric for guidance on how your discussion will be evaluated.WEEK 4 COMPLETE WORKHIS 204 Week 4 QuizHIS 204 Week 4 DQ 1 A Single American NationWhen the First World War began, African-American leaders pressed the government to provide black men the right to go to combat to prove their devotion to their country. Hoping that their service would lay a stake on citizenship which the nation would have no choice but to honor, the New Negro of the 1920s adopted a more militant stance toward civil rights. The civil rights struggle imagine at the time, ho wever, made few concrete gains. Discrimination and disenfranchisement persisted.HIS 204 Week 4 DQ 2 Cold WarAfter the Second World War, the US embarked on what came to be known as the Cold War against the Soviet Union. Although the two sides never fought against each other directly, the Cold War nonetheless erupted into violence at times in places like Vietnam, Korea, and Afghanistan. As the US grew more activist and interventionist in its foreign policy, the domestic government also grew in power and in its role in the peoples lives.WEEK 5 COMPLETE WORKHIS 204 Week 5 DQ 1 The Age of ReaganMost of us have lived much of our lives in the Age of Reagan, a period which dates from 1980 and which may still be ongoing today. Historiansincreasingly agree that the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 represented a revolution in American society and, particularly, its politics. Review Reagans presidential career to explain what about it precisely was so revolutionary. Compare his approach to pol itics and foreign affairs with those of his predecessors, and assess the ways that his successors either built upon or attempted to reverse his legacy. Explain why so many Americans opposed Reagans policies and those of his successors. Consider also the social and cultural changes which took place during the Age of Reagan. Finally, assess the success of the Reagan Revolution by identifying which problems it ameliorated and which it exacerbated. In your response, consider THREE of the following topics, with regard to how both Reagan and his successors handled or contributed to themHIS 204 Week 5 DQ 2 The Lived Experience of Ordinary PeopleEspecially since the 1960s, historians have sought to understand history not just as a series of major events presided over by generals and statesmen, but also as the lived experience of ordinary people. For this last discussion, begin by reflecting on your own past with an eye toward how American society has changed over the course of your life. In your response, focus less on major political or supranational events than on the ways day-to-day life in America is different today from what it was when you were younger. You might consider such factors as the cost of goods and services, the forms of entertainment, means of communication, and so forth.HIS 204 Week 5 Final Paper Native American historyThesis statement Native American historyIntroductionIt has been seen that Native American history extents thousands of thousands of years and two continents. This is a versatilenarrative of full of life cultures that in turn generatedcomplicatedfinancialassociations and multifaceted political unions. In the course of it all, an association of First Peoples to the earth has stay behind a fundamentalsubject. Despite the fact that Native Americans of the areanowadaysrecognizedlike New Englandshare identical languages and civilizations, recognizedlike Eastern Algonquian, we can say that they are not one political or societalcluster. To a certain extent, history comprises and still comprisesnumerous sub-groups. For instance, the Wampanoag reside in southeastern Massachusetts,the Pequots and Mohegans live in Connecticutat the same time as the Pocumtucks dwelt in the middle Connecticut River Valley close to todays Deerfield, Massachusetts (Bourne, 1990).

My ambitions in life Essay

My name is Jennis Dave Mirafuentes, I am now 16 years old. Were all 5 children in my find side, why I say in my father side only? It is because my father before was having his first family but they were separated because of some instances. We have 3 girls that is daughter of my father in his first wife and we are 2 in my mother side and we are both boys. We are now living in Km. 8 Ulas, Davao City. I finnish my primary study in Talomo Central Elementary School and my secondary in Talomo National High School. My first ambition in life when I was only a child is to become an architect because I love making an illustration of an house before but it was changed when I grow up because I realize that having an architecture course is difficult. When I was in my fourth year in high school I was windlessness thinking of what course I will take in college.And from that time I realize in myself what if I will follow the steps of my mother. I will continue her job in command other people beca use before my mother was graduated of education and she is also a board forward passer but when the time that she raise me and my younger brother she doesnt have enough time in teaching so that she decide to stop teaching and focus in caring of us. Thats why I decided to become a BS-Math student, Math because it was my favorite subject. Why I should become a teacher? Maybe now I still dont have an ability to teach wisely other people but I didnt refuse my ambition because the reason I studied is to learn the techniques on how to become an effective teacher. Maybe now I was only property one quality to become a teacher and that is my determination and willingness to teach.

Human Rights in Africa

The united Nations and the advancement of piece decents in Africa The United Nations and the advancement of kind-hearted beings estimables in Africa Wilfred Nderitu1 Abstract This idea explores to interrogate the objurgates- ground glide slope to growth and pauperisation reduction as espoused by the instruments and policies of the United Nations, considering Africa as the key beneficiary of the UN millennium Development Campaign.The author will alike enumerate the justifications for considering meagreness as a kind rights issue under external mankind race rights practice of law, and how this impacts on the advancement of humanity rights in Africa. Included is an turn backeavour to locate the direct and mediate contributions made by the different sections of the multinational community, including the external criminal justness scheme, to signifi locoweedtly reduce extreme want and hunger and, in so doing, relate human self-respect in Africa as envisi mavin d by the foreign human rights regime.Furthermore, the paper seeks to justify the responsibility of the State in privation fill-in from a juristic perspective, and argues for the domestication of planetary human rights standards in maturation countries as s hale as the ratification of the capital of Italy jurisprudence of the external woeful Court as complementary actions towards improving the state of human rights in Africa. The paper will in any case analyse human rights gaps, break awayicularly those emerging from the socio- stinting frame trifle of developing countries, such as a lack of wakeless relaxdoms and impunity.Introduction That scantiness is a universal phenomenon and a matter of signifi bungholet global concern nominate hardly be disputable. The international community, under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) has itself recognised this and acted upon its responsibility to uphold the principles of human hauteur, lessen toity and justness at the gl obal level, by committing to the millenary Declaration, the targets of which be commonly referred to as the Millennium Development Goals.One of the most important provide of the Millennium Declaration is perhaps that of the commitment to development and distress annihilation. By this Declaration, the international community commits to sp ar no crusade in their 1 I wish to verbalize my gratitude to James Gondi for his assistance with some of the setting research that went into this paper. 81 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa ursuit of the complete eradication of pauperization. The particulars of the international communitys commitment towards distress eradication overwhelm the by-line2 To halve by the year 2015, the rest of the worlds plentys whose in make senses are less than matchless dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger and, by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to affo rd safe alcoholism water.The particulars of the poverty scourge are more prevalent in developing countries, particularly Africa, and are characterised by hunger, no access to safe drinking water, and the inability of the majority of the population to achieve the minimum acceptable standards of spirit that are required in order to hold in staple fibre human arrogance. In the Millennium Declaration, the global human family resolves to 3 create an milieu at the national and global level alike which is conducive to development and to the elimination of poverty.It is the position of this paper that creating such an environment requires a multipronged approach shot to dealing with poverty an approach which dares to transcend the boundaries of frugals and to hollo broad(a)r issues which affect the global environments capacity to cede development and, in so doing, reduce poverty and hunger. Any poverty eradication strategy would involve creating income- genesis opportunities. The reality, however, is that such opportunities cannot be created in an anarchical or unstable socio-political environment.Hence, there is a need for a multifaceted approach to dealing with poverty which, in addition to speak toing the strictly economic issues, also tries to meliorate the socio-political fabric of a nation or region in which the war against poverty is being waged. Thus the Millennium Declaration c entirelys upon the international community to 4 spare no safari to promote democracy and strengthen the rule of law, as well as respect for only internationally recognized human rights and fundamental let loosedoms, including the right to development. 2 3 4 UN General Assembly resoluteness 55/2 at para. 9. (ibid. para. 12). (ibid. para. 19). 82 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa This averment in the Declaration is not a separate abstract goal, but is a complementary commitment made in full cognisance of the fact that poverty eradicatio n efforts must sacrifice a strong socio-political base, characterised by respect for the rule of law, human rights and democracy. Indeed, creating a stable political, legal and economic environment friendly to entrepreneurship and investment is a precursor for effectively build up biting poverty.Nobel Economist Amartya Sen5 acknowledges the argument set forth above in Development as freedom6 Freedom, the ability of a someone to make finalitys ab knocked out(p) his or her life, is not only the most efficient means for building a healthy developed society, but also its ultimate goal. When you put assets in the hands of the poor in a politically distorted environment, not very much happens. This sums up the nexus which binds the human rights movement and the global effort to stir poverty and, more importantly, offers succinct authentication for considering poverty as a infringement of human rights.Defining poverty as a human rights issue Arjun Sengupta7 argues that human right s are legal rights with dressing obligations on the duty- directers, who are primarily the States. This legality of rights and the binding nature of their obligations is the main attraction of cl take oning human rights. It underlines the importance of bringing the issue of poverty in spite of appearance the realm of the human rights movement, and delineate freedom from hunger and poverty within the simulation of human rights norms 5 6 7Amartya Sen is a Professor of Economics at Trinity College in Cambridge, a citizen of India, and winner of the 1998 Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, for his contributions to welfare economics. Sen (1999). Arjun Sengupta is a fountain Professor at the School of world-wide Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, and shortly an Adjunct Professor at the Harvard School of Public Health and Chairman of the Center for Development and Human Rights in New Delhi.He is also the former UN free lance Expert on the Right to Development, and current United Nations Independent Expert on Human Rights and Extreme Poverty. 83 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa and standards. It follows that, once the aforementioned are accepted as human rights, then they become legal rights and the State becomes a legal duty-bearer, charged with ensuring that its citizens are free from extreme hunger and poverty as demanded by the Millennium Declaration.Sengupta adds8 The duty-bearers are primarily the states. They are supposed to be accountable for any failures to charter out their obligations and are expected to take remedial actions if their non-compliance with their duties is determined by an appropriate independent mechanism. Hence, the theoretical advantage of placing the global poverty eradication effort under the realm of the international human rights philosophy is clear. It establishes a legal aspect to the fight against poverty and, most importantl y, devises a duty-bearer in the form of the State.It is also important for jurists to establish a theoretical ass for defining poverty eradication as a human rights issue. Taking a human rights approach to poverty is a path towards the mandate of the poor. A background paper published by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) states that the modern-day challenge in the fight against poverty is to establish mechanisms which erode powerlessness and enhance the affable capacity of the poor. The OHCHR advances the case for a human rights pproach to poverty reduction as follows9 When human rights are introduced in policy-making, the rationale of poverty reduction no longer derives only from the fact that the poor commit needs but is based on the rights of poor peoples entitlements that give rise to obligations on the part of others that are enshrined in law. The OHCHR furthers the juristic approach to the eradication of poverty from a practical lean exemplifie d by empowerment. The argument is that defining poverty in a human rights context not only gives it a legal status and legal rights which can be claimed with respect to poverty, but also serves to empower the poor.Just as civil and political rights have, with the aid of the civil rights movement, empowered minorities and disadvantaged groups in the past, the components of a human rights normative framework can contribute to the empowerment of the poor in Africa. 8 9 Sengupta Forthcoming. OHCHR (2002). 84 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa The following is an account of the evidence first in political surmisal, then by international human rights law that serves to advance our proposition that the issue of poverty can be defined as a human rights issue.By extension, failure by the State to intervene in curbing poverty becomes a infringement of human rights. The medium which brings the aspects of poverty eradication and human rights together is the u nderlying dignity of humankind, which the State has a duty to encourage as accomplished by former(a) political theorists. The protection of the inherent dignity of humankind is also entrenched in modern international human rights law. Social and political theory Jurists come across various political and brotherly theories in search of jurisprudential concepts that form a goodish proportion of the basis for legal learning.In Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes10 advances the theory of the social claim. This is the contract between the citizen and the State, i. e. the body politic, in which the people advance from an anarchical state of nature by handing over their instincts of self-preservation and, as such, mutually negative powers to a central authority (the Leviathan) to enable the central authority to exercise the collective power for the benefit of the whole populace.Liberal analysis of the social contract theory stipulates that it is from this contract between man and State, that th e latter derives its legitimacy. In return, the populace is authorize to certain fundamental rights and freedoms. Like any contract, the social contract entails two rights and duties for both parties. As such, citizens have duties to fulfil as subjects, and have innate(p) rights they should enjoy as human beings. Hence, the very legitimacy of the State is partially based on the ability of the citizens to enjoy certain elementary rights.It is the proposition of this paper that no right could be more fundamental, elementary or natural than the right to grassroots human dignity a right recognised by the social contract, and which forms the basic ethos of the human rights philosophy. Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are the best-known proponents of this immensely influential theory, which has been one of the most dominant within the moral and political ambit. Rousseau, an influential 18th-Century 10 Hobbes (1998/1651). 85 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa olitical theorist, elaborates on the social contract (also referred to as the social compact) as follows11 The social compact sets up among the citizens an e tincture of such a kind, that they all bind themselves to observe the same conditions and should therefore all enjoy the same rights. Thus from the nature of the compact, every act of Sovereignty, i. e. , every authentic act of the general will, binds or favours all the citizens equally so that the sovereign recognizes only the body of the nation, and draws no distinctions between those of whom it is made up.It is legitimate, because based on the social contract, and equitable, because common to all useful because it can have no other object other than the general good, and stable because it is guaranteed by the public force and the supreme power. To retain its legitimacy, the sovereign must meet its obligations to the citizen, which include ensuring that the citizen is entitled to his or her fundamental righ ts. This includes the right to minimum standards of human dignity which may, from one perspective, be interpreted as the right to be free from poverty and hunger.This is because poverty and hunger deny the citizen the ability to racy within minimum acceptable standards of human dignity. This brings out the equality dimension of liberal political theory. In reality, legitimate equality is difficult to achieve, but the argument is that there should be a certain basic minimum standard available to all citizens to ensure that their lives are commensurate with the basic acceptable standards of human dignity. It follows that the right to basic human dignity entails the right to be free from poverty and hunger.International human rights law As members of the international community that recognise human rights and ratify treaties and covenants, all States and institutions take on the obligation of ensuring these rights. Poverty has always been considered as a degradation of human dignity . Indeed, poor people lack the freedom to perish a life with dignity. International human rights law preserves and protects the inherent dignity of the human being and the states parties to international human rights treaties, particularly the Universal 11Boyd (1963). 86 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),12 are obligated to preserve and protect the inherent dignity of their citizens. By logical abstraction, states parties to international human rights instruments such as the UDHR are obliged to take active measures to deal with all things which scandalise the inherent dignity of their citizens. Poverty and its consequences are, from a juristic perspective, some of the greatest hindrances to human dignity.An analysis of the plannings of international human rights instruments which emanate from the forum of the UN reveals the express protection of human dignity and the protection of human beings from the derogatory c onditions that are synonymous with poverty. The following sample of international human rights instruments depicts this position. The UDHR, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) will be applied below to expound the international legal basis under which poverty can be viewed as a violation of human rights.The Preamble to the UDHR is unequivocal about the need to preserve human dignity13 The recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the gear upation of freedom, rightness and peace in the world. This is the root of the protection of inherent human dignity in international law as well as of the argument set forth herein that poverty is a violation of human rights because it deprives people of the capacity to live within the minimum acceptable standards of human dignity.Article 22 of the UDHR stip ulates the following14 Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. 12 13 14 Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly Resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948. (ibid. ). (ibid. ). 87 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in AfricaThis provision fully portrays the aspect of multiple responsibility and approaches to ensuring human dignity by setting out certain minimum rights requiring pursuit through the concerted efforts of a wide spectrum of actors at national and international level. By preserving the right to social security, protecting economic, social and cultural rights including the free development of the individual and pla cing the onus for the fulfilment of these rights at the at both the national and international level, this provision of the UDHR cements the think of of ensuring certain minimum tandards of living for citizens by way of the use of State resources as a precursor to preserving human dignity. When poverty prevails, these minimum standards are out of reach. Therefore, any poverty relievo effort needs to consider ensuring these basic rights as a cornerstone of its strategy. Similarly, Articles 23, 25 and 26 of the UDHR address issues related to basic minimum living standards aimed at preserving human dignity, and similarly crucial to poverty eradication.In summary, the aforesaid articles of the UDHR demand that everyone has the following rights Work A standard of living tolerable for his health and well-being and that of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical fear, and the necessary social services, and Education. In similar fashion, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) contains provisions which aim to preserve basic rights related to living standards.Article 11(2) of the ICESCR states the following15 The States Parties to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, shall take, individually and through international cooperation, the measures, including item programmes, which are needed (a) To improve methods of production, conservation and distribution of food by making full use of technical and scientific knowledge, by disseminating knowledge of the principles of forage and by developing or reforming agrarian systems in such a way as to achieve the most efficient development and utilization of natural resources 15Ghandhi (2002). 88 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa (b) Taking into account the problems of both food-importing and food-exporting countries, to ensure an equitable distribution of world food supplies in simi larity to need. This goes to the heart of the juristic argument that poverty is a human rights issue, and that creating stable political and socio-economic structures in which respect for human rights related to ensuring minimum standards of human dignity are observed is a precursor to any credible poverty eradication strategy.Furthermore, Articles 6, 7, 9, 12 and 13 of the ICESCR seek to preserve the following The right to work and to enjoy just and favourable conditions at work, which ensure fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal value. The right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and The right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.Article 14(2) of CEDAW states the following16 States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they p articipate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular, shall ensure to such women the right (a) To participate in the elaboration and implementation of development planning at all levels (b) To have access to adequate health care facilities, including information, counseling and services in family planning (c) To benefit directly from social security programmes (d) To obtain all types of training and education, formal and non-formal, including that relating to functional literacy, as well as, inter alia, the benefit of all community and extension services, in order to increase their technical proficiency (e) To organize self-help groups and co-operatives in order to obtain equal access to economic opportunities through employment (f) To participate in all community activities (g) To have access to agricultural credit and loans, marketing facilities, appropriate technology and equal treatment in grunge and agrarian reform as well as in land resettlement schemes (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications. 16 (ibid. ). 89The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa The relationship between the rights of women and development counterpart poverty eradication is well established. In developing countries, the burden of direct provision for the family in terms of basic necessities is predominantly carried by women. It is they that till the soil. Thus, the empowerment of women serves as a useful avenue to the achievement of poverty eradication goals and objectives. Hence, it is important that women are not denied a fitting environment for the creation of opportunities for the generation of income. This means that women in developing countries should have similar access to capital as their male counterparts.This includes access to loans, membership of cooperatives, and equal treatment in land matters among other rights, as stipu lated in CEDAW. To improve the position of women with respect to access to capital, the support for womens inheritance rights should be strengthened. As such, human rights non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in the developing world that promulgate womens inheritance rights should be applauded and given additional support by the international community. The argument here is that inherited property, such as land, serves as an asset that can be used to obtain investment capital and generate income and, in so doing, contribute to the eradication of poverty.Furthermore, particular charge should be directed at the education of women as a means of raising their living standards, in conformity with minimum acceptable standards inspired by the inherent dignity of man which the international community seeks to preserve and protect. Preservation of the above rights under the various international instruments ensures minimum standards of living commensurate with human dignity. Hence, the fu lfilment of these rights by States and the appointment of the international community are an invaluable contribution to efforts aimed at eradicating extreme poverty and hunger as per the Millennium Declaration. The masss Decade for Human Rights Education (PDHRE)17 asserts that the human right to live in dignity is a fundamental right and, more importantly, 17Founded in 1988, PDHRE International is a non-profit, international service organisation that works directly and indirectly with its network of affiliates primarily womens and social justice organisations to develop and advance pedagogies for human rights education relevant to peoples perfunctory lives in the context of their struggles for social and economic justice and democracy. PDHREs members include experient educators, human rights experts, UN officials, and world-renowned advocates and activists who cooperate to 90 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa is essential to the acknowledgment o f all other human rights.The PDHRE specifies the particular rights that constitute the overall right to live in dignity. These include the right to be free from hunger the right to live in adequate housing the right to safe drinking water, and the right to a healthy and safe environment. These rights are not static and inelastic they are fluid, interconnected, and interdependent. Synergy between the efforts of different international institutions and other actors in the fight against poverty Women, conflict and poverty The Millennium Declaration resolves as follows18 To promote gender equality and the empowerment of women as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable.The focus on gender in the poverty eradication effort is significant. Modern thinking demands gain of gender equality as a means of reinforcing the development agenda. Women who have low levels of education and training, poor health and nutritional s tatus, and limited access to resources have the 18 conceive, initiate, facilitate, and service projects on education in human rights for social and economic transformation. The organisation is dedicated to publishing and disseminating demand-driven human rights training manuals and other pedagogy materials, and otherwise servicing grass-roots and community groups engaged in a creative, contextualised process of human rights learning, reflection, and action.The PDHRE views human rights as a value system capable of alter democratic communities and nations through its emphasis on accountability, reciprocity, and peoples equal and informed participation in the decisions that affect their lives. The PDHRE was pivotal in lobbying the UN to found a Decade for Human Rights Education, and in drafting and lobbying for various resolutions by the gentlemans gentleman Conference on Human Rights, the UN General Assembly, the UN Human Rights Commission, the UN Treaty Bodies, and the Fourth Worl d Conference on Women. UN General Assembly Resolution 55/2 at para. 20. 91 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa ffect of reducing the quality of life of the entire population. This is because women are the madcap force behind the family the basic unit of the community. Discrimination against women then impairs other elements of development. Different components of the human rights normative framework can contribute to the empowerment of the poor and provide useful poverty alleviation input. Womens rights are one such component. The empowerment of women is central to combating all manner of international scourges and the pursuit of developmental goals worldwide. The participation of women in mainstream development activity and poverty reduction strategies is essential.For this to take place, all factors which tend to discriminate against the participation of women in income-generating opportunities and other poverty reduction strategies need to be abolis hed. In cases of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity, over which the International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction, women and children are the primary victims of cannibalic and cruel acts, which are inextricably connected to armed conflict. Women are captured, raped and tortured. In recognition of this, the Rome Statute includes such acts of cruelty against women in defining war crime and crime against humanity. In seeking to combat impunity, the Rome Statute seeks accountability to women for gender-specific offences that are expressly defined in it.In the past, treaties have failed to address crimes against women with the requisite specificity19 Treaties have been drafted outlawing, in excruciating detail, everything from particular kinds of bullets to the destruction of historical buildings, while maintaining enormous silence or providing only vague provisions on crimes against women. Provisions are needed in international humanitarian law that take womens expe riences of internal violence as a outset point rather than just a by-product of war. The experiences of the ad hoc tribunals for Rwanda and Yugoslavia have contributed greatly to the growing recognition for and action against crimes committed against women in armed conflict. This move around has culminated in the express definition of crimes of sexual violence being included in the Rome Statute. In a United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) take 19 Askin (1997). 92 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa ntitled Women, war and peace, Elizabeth Rehn and Ellen Sirleaf capture the recent history of mainstreaming crimes against women into international law20 The campaign to end violence against women took root and gained momentum throughout the 1990s on the agendas of the UN World Conferences, from Vienna in 1993 to Cairo in 1994 to Beijing in 1995, where the principles for codifying international law on violence against women began to be recognized . Those principles were later tested in landmark decisions by the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda and ultimately informed the definition of crimes of sexual violence included in the Rome Statute of the ICC. The continued progress of bringing gender violence issues to the fore of international law now lies partly with the ICC. It is our hope that the gains already made will be tested and strengthened further in proceedings before the Court.Justice Theodore Morton of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) echoed these sentiments 21 The crimes recognized by the ICC Statute, including the gender-specific offences, may well take on a life of their own as an authoritative and largely customary tilt of international humanitarian and criminal law and become a model for national laws to be enforced under the principle of universality of jurisdiction. In addition, post-conflict jurisdictions are normally devastated and the remaining populations stay destitute as a result of the destruction of assets and economic endeavour. Yet again, those who suffer the most are women, as they bear the onus of rebuild their family structures. This is part of the ethos behind the establishment of the ICCs Trust Fund for victims of these atrocities, since it recognises the poverty scourge that is characteristic of post-conflict jurisdictions.Thus, in addition to seeking justice for the victims of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity (for which women suffer the most), the ICC recognises the poverty dimension. It is hoped that proceeds from the Trust Fund will help victims, particularly women, to have a new-fashioned start to their lives by creating income opportunities which help to alleviate poverty. Traditionally, neuterings for violations of international humanitarian law are the subject of States, and are paid to States rather than to the individual. Now, however, important developments are taking plac e in this respect. The OHCHR 20 21 Rehn & Sirleaf (2002). (ibid. ). 93 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa as appointed a Special Rapporteur on the right to reparations, and principles relevant to reparative remedies have been drafted by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 22 In fact, the Draft basic principles and guidelines on the right to a remedy and reparation for victims of gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law, if adopted as they are, will require the State to 23 provide reparation to victims for acts or omissions which can be attributed to the State and constitute gross violations of international human rights law or serious violations of international humanitarian law.In cases where a person, a legal person, or other entity is found liable for reparation to a victim, such party should provide reparation to the victim or compensate the State if the State has a lready provided reparation to the victim. Also interesting to note in the above respect is that the Preamble to the Draft basic principles refers to a right to remedy for victims of violations of international human rights found in regional conventions, particularly the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights at Article 7, among other regional human rights instruments. 24 Article 75 of the Rome Statute of the ICC extends reparation rights to individual victims. Article 75, titled Reparations to victims, reads as follows 1. The Court shall establish principles relating to reparations to, or in respect of, victims, including restitution, compensation and rehabilitation.On this basis, in its decision the Court may, either upon request or on its own motion in exceptional circumstances, determine the scope and extent of any damage, loss and reproach to, or in respect of, victims and will state the principles on which it is acting. The Court may make an order directly against a convi cted person specifying appropriate reparations to, or in respect of, victims, including restitution, compensation and rehabilitation. Where appropriate, the Court may order that the award for reparations be made through the Trust Fund provided for in article 79. 3. before making an order under this article, the Court may invite and shall take account of representations from or on behalf of the convicted person, victims, other interested persons or interested States. 2. 22 23 24 (ibid. ). Van Boven (2004). (ibid. ). 94 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa 4.In exercising its power under this article, the Court may, after a person is convicted of a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court, determine whether, in order to give effect to an order which it may make under this article, it is necessary to seek measures under article 93, paragraph 1. A State Party shall give effect to a decision under this article as if the provisions of article109 were releva nt to this article. Nothing in this article shall be interpreted as prejudicing the rights of victims under national or international law. 5. 6. It is hoped that the proceeds from such reparations will go towards rebuilding efforts and, in so doing, inject some finance, however modest, towards reestablishing post-conflict economies.Thus, two dimensions are recognised here by the goals of the ICC and the Trust Fund in relation to poverty alleviation The first dimension, as argued above, is that the empowerment of women serves as a useful avenue to the alleviation of poverty because women in the developing world are the driving force of the family, the basic unit of society, and The second dimension is to seek justice for the victims of war crimes the most ravaged group being women. Reparations for victims, as envisaged by the Rome Statute, are a key component of this quest for justice. Convergence between international criminal justice and poverty alleviation efforts The legendary philosopher, pacifist, and leader of the people of India, the late Mahatma Gandhi, saw the human being as a limited creature capable of cruelty, narrow-mindedness and violence.Indeed, this character or weakness is observed daily when we see women and children marching in their thousands across national borders trying to escape from violence and genocide. Such are the human weaknesses which make the world susceptible to fosterage a glossiness of impunity. With this in mind, the international criminal justice system seeks justice for the victims of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity, with one of the intended outputs being deterrence against the culture of impunity. The connectedness is clear impunity leads to armed conflict, which leads to anarchy, which in turn yields poverty. Nevertheless, we realise that this relationship between 95 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa mpunity, conflict and poverty is not absolutely linear, and that eac h factor contributes to the other in some way. However, the experience of those involved in international criminal justice is that a poverty-stricken environment is always one of the most grievous outcomes of a post-conflict situation. As such, from the lens of transitional justice, dealing with impunity contributes to preventing the exacerbation of poverty brought about by armed conflict. As stated earlier, the fight against poverty is itself a demonstration of respect for the inherent right to human dignity. A world community in which a culture of impunity is allowed to thrive will be characterised by gross contempt for human dignity.In tackling the problem of impunity through ad hoc tribunals, special tribunals and the ICC, the international community is effectively combating one of the triggers of poverty. Thus, the international criminal justice system should be viewed partly as an indirect actor in the effort to supplant poverty. This would be in retentiveness with the colle ctive responsibility with which the entire international community (including all international institutions) is charged by the Millennium Declaration. Furthermore, it is agreed that poverty alleviation requires the creation of incomegenerating opportunities. score teaches us that armed conflict destroys the economic fabric of society and creates anarchy. It is impossible for incomegeneration activities to take place in an armed conflict situation.Having seen that a culture of impunity provides a breeding ground for armed conflict which yields poverty, it is arguable that the international criminal justice system, by deterring impunity, indirectly acts to prevent the destruction of stable socioeconomic environments and, in so doing, helps to prevent the exacerbation of poverty. A further area of convergence and synergy between international criminal justice and the global poverty eradication effort keeping in mind that international criminal justice mechanisms are arms of the wide r system of international law is revealed by a abstract analysis of justice in international law on the one hand, and economic and social justice on the other.Any conceptual analysis of justice explores the judgementls of equity and fairness. Justice in the international realm comprises a sense of horizontal equity between States, and vertical equity between States and their citizens. This is a conceptual 96 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa analysis of justice as viewed through the lens of international law. The same is expressed by Sengupta25 International law should concern itself with a just and fair relationship between the States, and the vertical relationship between the States and their citizens should be treated separately, through constitutional reforms within the sovereign states.But when the claims of equality of relationship are advanced in terms of human rights, such as the right to development, vertical relations also come within the purview of discussions. If the equality of human rights relationships referred to by Sengupta include freedom from extreme poverty and hunger (and, by extension, the right to development), as we have experienced in our sample analysis of key international human rights instruments, the vertical equity conceptual aspect of justice in international law also encompasses the duty of States to take all necessary measures to free their citizens from hunger and poverty. Thus, in seeking justice from the perspective of international law, States are, by extension, simultaneously obliged to address the economic and social aspects of justice by fighting poverty.This analysis reveals that, although all international actors in the global fight to eradicate poverty may result separate avenues and be inspired by various economic, social and political concepts which all contribute greatly to the fight, we are all intrinsically motivated by a desire to achieve justice. The international criminal jus tice system pursues legal justice for victims of crimes against humanity through international courts, while other international actors (more inclined towards scientific and economic approaches) seek economic and social justice for the world population through the implementation of poverty eradication programmes on the ground.Indeed, this idea of a common intrinsic motivation finds support in the Preamble to the Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), which declares as follows26 The wide diffusion of culture, and the education of humanity for justice and liberty and peace are indispensable for the dignity of man and constitute a sacred duty which all the nations must fulfil in a spirit of mutual assistance and concern. The vertical equity relationship between States and their citizens, as sought by international human rights law and explored above, is similar to the Hobbesian 25 26 Forthcoming. Preamble to the UNESCO Constitutio n, which came into force on 4 November 1946 after ratification by 20 countries. 97 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa social contract.Hence, the common intrinsic pursuit of justice by various international actors (including the international criminal justice system and the poverty eradication movement) is visible both at the level of international law and within the sphere of political theory. Responsibility of the State in poverty alleviation from a juristic perspective Domestication of international human rights standards A proposed new focus within the human rights framework itself would aid the fight against poverty and, in so doing, cement the human rights approach to poverty eradication. For decades, human rights advocacy has leaned more towards civil and political rights and less towards the sister economic and social rights.This is due partly to the impetus for democratisation and ending discrimination, which were major features of international affairs after World War II. The 21st Century presents the international community with new challenges and new priorities. The human rights movement and the international community as a whole must, in keeping with new priorities espoused by the Millennium Declaration such as the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, apply economic and social rights advocacy towards the reduction of poverty. The OHCHR supports such a renewed approach27 Recognition of the complementary relationships between civil and political rights on the one hand, and economic, social and cultural rights on the other, can strengthen as well as broaden the scope of poverty eradication strategies.In expounding on the scope of the right to health, the Economic and Social Rights Committee a body established by the ICESCR to monitor compliance by states parties with its provisions says that 28 the right includes a wide range of socio-economic factors that promote conditions in which people can lead a healthy life , and extends to underlying determinants of health, such as food and nutrition, housing, access to safe and potable water and adequate sanitation, safe and healthy working conditions, and a healthy environment. 27 28 OHCHR (2002). (ibid. ). 98 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa These underlying determinants go to the heart of the most crucial poverty-related problems, and would constitute part of an effective human rights approach to poverty eradication as well as support the arguments in favour of defining poverty as a violation of human rights.Returning to the obligation of States to their citizens under international law and backed by political theory, the ICESCR demands that states parties take steps, utilising their maximum available resources, to progressively achieve the realisation of the rights contained in the Covenant by, among other initiatives, adopting appropriate legislative measures to this end. The duty to take steps constitutes an imme diate obligation. The aspect of duties and obligations (to be performed by the State for the benefit of the citizen) connected to economic and social rights, which include factors central to poverty eradication such as the provision of food and clean water, provide a legalistic colour to the provision of basic human needs and, in so doing, support the juristic view of poverty as a violation of human rights.Overall, the domestication of international human rights standards civil and political, and economic, social and cultural in the national legal systems of developing countries would create a suitable institution for the generation of income opportunities and contribute to the alleviation of poverty, while reinforcing the juristic consideration of poverty as a violation of human rights. Ratification of the Rome Statute and implementation of the necessary national economy The Millennium Declaration calls upon States to consider signing and ratifying the Rome Statute as part of their commitment to peace, security and disarmament. Looking at the Millennium Declaration holistically, a perspective is developed which portrays the different development goals and declarations in pursuit of those goals (e. g. peace, security and disarmament development nd poverty eradication human rights democracy and good governance) as interlinked and interdependent. Thus, the commitment to the theme of peace and security, for example, is not a commitment to the theme in itself, but a complementary commitment to the wider, more holistic goals of the Millennium Declaration, which includes 99 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa the pursuit and achievement of the other thematic goals such as development and poverty eradication. These portray the challenges facing the international community in the 21st Century in striving to make the world a better place for the entire human family.Therefore, just as the commitment to peace, security and disarmament is complementary to the goal of development and poverty eradication, the signing and ratification of the Rome Statute is a common and facilitative pathway to the achievement of both poverty eradication and the aforesaid wider objective. More directly, the ratification of the Rome Statute and the implementation of relevant legislation in national legal systems provide a stable platform for transitional justice, and deal a fatal blow to the culture of impunity which is the cause of international armed conflict, characterised by genocidal ambivalence, within the remit of the ICC.To belabour the point, transitional justice in the developing world contributes to peace, stability and the rule of law which are the ingredients of a suitable income-generation environment that, in turn, is crucial to the eradication of poverty and hunger. The substance of this paper poses certain fundamental questions worth pondering. What part can jurists play in the fresh impetus to eradicate poverty, as em bodied in the Millennium Declaration? What is the role of the international criminal justice system in these efforts? Just as justice is fundamental to the widening of democratic space, it is equally important to bridging the poverty gap.The international criminal justice system will play its role in contributing to these efforts by adhering to the principles of zero tolerance for impunity and delivering justice to the victims of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. The international criminal justice system recognises that impunity breeds violence, which destroys the environment for income-generation and, thus, exacerbates poverty. This is why the Preamble to the Rome Statute recognises that grave crimes threaten the peace, security and well-being of the world, and is determined to put an end to impunity for the perpetrators of these crimes. The Millennium Declaration further resolves to 29 29 UN General Assembly Resolution 55/2 at para. 12. 100 The United Nations and t he advancement of human rights in Africa create an environment at the national and global levels alike which is conducive to development and to the elimination of poverty. In so doing, the Declaration recognises the importance of international systems that, through various aspects and initiatives, contribute to dealing with the causes, triggers and aggravators of poverty. International criminal justice mechanisms seek justice and deter impunity a cause of conflict and, thus, an aggravator of poverty. This recognition, coupled with the plea to ratify the Rome Statute in the Millennium Declaration, inspires an increasing convergence of thought, effort and interaction between the spheres of international criminal justice and economic development. ConclusionPoverty is a violation of human rights because States are obligated, under international human rights law and the social contract from which the State derives its legitimacy, to remove the impediments to the enjoyment of resources required to sustain a standard of living commensurate with the minimum acceptable level of human dignity. The consequences of poverty deny the citizen a standard of living commensurate to his or her inherent dignity. Thus, a human rights approach to poverty eradication has a strong foundation both in theoretical dimensions and at a practical level. The OHCHR argues for the active participation of the poor in poverty reduction strategies, in keeping with the right of citizens to participate in decision-making.In arguing for such participation, the OHCHR provides a linkage between poverty reduction and human rights, arguing that the poor 30 must be free to organize without restriction (right of association), to meet without impediment (right of assembly), and to say what they want without intimidation (freedom of expression) they must know the relevant facts (right to information) and they must enjoy an elementary level of economic security and well-being (right to a reasonable standa rd of living and associated rights). In so doing, all persons will enjoy the basic rights and freedoms that enable them to participate in the conduct of public affairs and decision-making. This ultimately involves the distribution of resources key to the alleviation of poverty. 30 OHCHR (2002). 101The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa Thus, not only is poverty itself a violation of human rights, but the key to its alleviation lies in the conferment and entrenchment of fundamental rights and freedoms in developing nations. Considering poverty as a violation of human rights is not merely a theoretical endeavour the output of such consideration addresses the specific issue of the lack of sufficient quantities of basic necessities. Once poverty is well established as a violation of human rights, resultant advocacy will pursue the attainment of basic necessities by advocating for the right to food, the right to health, the right to education, and so on.In so do ing, the human rights movement will be contributing directly and substantially to the global effort to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, as resolved in the Millennium Declaration. 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Geneva Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 103